The Mystery of Galileo’s Letter

Did Galileo edit his letter to Castrelli to moderate his views on the church and his “heretical” heliocentric view of the universe?  Or did someone send a false letter to the Inquisition against the scientist?  Or did the church amend his letter to prove his guilt during the Inquisition?  In other words, was Galileo doing “damage control” (in today’s parlance) or, as Galileo maintained, was this “fake news” conceived by his enemies out of “wickedness and ignorance”?

A new copy of Galileo’s letter has come to light solving this mystery.  The letter was discovered in August 2018 in London at the library of the Royal Society.  A young researcher from Bergamo, Salvatore Ricciardo, at day’s end was leafing through a catalogue and stumbled upon it.  It had been incorrectly dated and therefore had been “lost” for more than 250 years.  The origin of the letter has been verified.

Let’s start with a little background and a timeline.  It was in 1543 that the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus published a book in which he proposed that the earth was not the center of the universe but that the planets orbit the sun.  In 1600 the Inquisition in Rome convicted a Dominican friar and mathematician, Giordano Bruno, of heresy for, among other counts, supporting the Copernican model. Bruno was burned at the stake. Then in 1610 Galileo published a book based on his discoveries with his new telescope that supported the Copernican thesis.

Then in 1613 Galileo wrote a letter to his friend Benedetto Castelli, a mathematician at the University of Pisa.  In the 7-page missive signed “GG,” Galileo not only maintained that the planets revolved around the sun, but also claimed for the first time that scientific research must be free from theological doctrine.  Copies of the letter were circulated.

And now the ruckus begins. Dominican friar Niccolò Lorini sent Galileo’s letter to the Inquisition in Rome in 1615.  (A copy of this letter is kept in the Vatican Secrets Archives.) A week later Galileo wrote to his friend Piero Dini, suggesting that the version sent by Lorini had been altered. He attached a less inflammatory version of the letter originally sent to Castrelli, presenting it as the original version, and asked him to get it to the Vatican theologians.  Over the next 15 years, despite warnings from the church, Galileo continued to put forth his views of the Solar System.

Then in 1632 the Inquisition summoned Galileo to Rome to stand trial.  The Lorini letter was used as evidence to convict Galileo of “vehement suspicion of heresy.”  He was given a prison sentence, which was later commuted to house arrest, under which he lived the last nine years of his life.

So what does the newly discovered letter show?  Underneath the amendments in Galileo’s hand, the signed copy discovered by Ricciardo in London is the same as the Lorini copy.  Galileo made the changes to avoid the wrath of the Inquisition.  But the changes are rather minor, meant to soften harsher words.  For example, Galileo at one point referred to certain statements in the Bible as “false” but replaced it with “appears different from the truth.”  In another section, he changed his reference to the Scriptures “concealing” its most basic dogmas, to the softer “veiling.”

Who can blame Galileo for his edits?  At a time when heretics were burned at the stake, he was lucky to receive house arrest.  For now, researchers are amazed by their discovery.  The importance of Galileo’s letter to Castrelli cannot be overestimated.  It is one of the first secular manifestos to call for the freedom of science from religious interference.

 

Posted in English, Foto, Italia, Roma, Storia, Vaticano | Leave a comment

Il fastidio del marciapiede

In passato, camminare per le strade cittadine era un percorso ad ostacoli.  Invece di ammirare l’architettura o le vetrine, dovevate guardare dove stavate camminando o rischiavate di portarvi a casa un piccolo omaggio sulla suola della scarpa.  Le leggi urbane hanno notevolmente migliorato la situazione, ma non tutti i padroni di cani sono diligenti e spesso non ripuliscono durante la passeggiata mattutina.  Le città hanno provato tutto dall’utilizzo del servizio postale (un sindaco spagnolo ha spedito la cacca ai padroni dei cani) alla vergogna (alcune città hanno pubblicizzato i nomi dei padroni abusivi) alla corruzione (alcuni parchi nella Città del Messico hanno offerto la connessione WiFi gratuita in cambio dei rifiuti).

Le città italiane sembrano essere particolarmente lungimiranti nella campagna di pulizia e stanno usando la tecnologia per aiutare.  È iniziata cinque anni fa a Napoli, una città che lotta con ironia a raccogliere la spazzatura umana.  (In realtà, in seguito al successo della vicina isola turistica di Capri).  Il terreno di prova è stato Vomero, un quartiere ricco, dove ogni cane doveva sottoporsi ad un esame del sangue per la determinazione del Dna al fine di creare un database di cani e padroni.  Poi, quando veniva scoperto un mucchio incriminato, veniva in seguito testato. Se veniva trovata un’accoppiate, il padrone doveva pagare una multa fino a 500 euro.  I primi risultati indicavano che la campagna di pulizia stava funzionando.

Poi nel 2016 è entrata in scena la città di Malnate (provincia di Varese, regione della Lombardia).  La città è conosciuta per la sua sensibilità ambientale.  È iniziato con un microchip nella spazzatura; in un solo anno la differenziata è passata dal 55 al 77 per cento, e il paese di 16 mila abitanti ha vinto un premio per essere tra i sette comuni più virtuosi d’Italia.  Adesso i padroni di cani sono stati sfidati, e i loro amici a quattro zampe devono fornire un contribuito di saliva per la potenziale analisi del Dna.  Queste iniziative non sono prive di critiche.  La lega anti-vivisezione ha attaccato il nuovo esperimento: “Si tratta di un’idea semplicemente ridicola.  L’impegno tecnico e finanziario che sarebbe necessario per realizzare tale progetto è assolutamente spropositato rispetto alla supposta gravità del problema”.  Ma il comune ha perseguito incontri con cittadini e gruppi.  Hanno notato che l’esperimento del Vomero ha portato alla riduzione del 70 per cento delle deiezioni canine in strada.  Analoghi progetti sono partiti a Livorno e Trieste. E i costi?  La campagna per il prelievo del Dna sarà pagata dalla ditta che cura la raccolta della spazzatura.  I proprietari di cani dovranno portare Fido in una clinica veterinaria per un contributo di saliva (gratuito per il padrone del cane) che sarà pagato dall’azienda che esegue l’igiene ambientale in città. Quella compagnia, a sua volta, vedrà risparmi nelle ore di lavoro dalla riduzione degli escrementi per strada. Inoltre, i proprietari avranno informazioni utili per definire il pedigree o la razza di origine e per tracciare e prevenire l’insorgenza della malattia nei loro animali domestici.

Poi nel 2017 a Savona (in Liguria), è stata proposta una nuova iniziativa che richiede ai proprietari di cani, sotta pena di una multa fino a 500 euro, di ripulire sia i rifiuti solidi che liquidi nelle aree pedonali, e sulle facciate degli edifici, colonne dei portici, pali e paline, aiuole, panchine, cestini raccogli rifiuti, ecc.  La polemica sta contrapponendo i commercianti agli animalisti.  Da un lato, i negozianti sostengono che per loro è una spesa onerosa fare ciò che le persone farebbero da sole.  Le organizzazioni per il benessere degli animali affermano che “impedire agli animali di fare i bisogni rasenta il maltrattamento”.

E nel 2018 le città di Chivasso e Carmagnola (provincia di Torino, regione del Piemonte) hanno approvato le leggi riguardo questo problema.  A Chivasso, per quelli che ha un cane, una paletta e un sacchetto non bastano più.  Devono portare una bottiglietta d’acqua per lavare il marciapiede.  Le violazioni prevedono sanzioni da 25 a 150 euro. Carmagnola invece fornisce l’esame del Dna di tutti i cani nel comune.  Il direttore dell’Istituto Zooprofilattico spiega, “Il nostro contributo scientifico è quello di mettere l’analisi genetica al servizio della lotta alle malattie degli animali in particolare quelle trasmissibili all’uomo, come le parassitosi, in significativo aumento”.  La raccolta del Dna dei cani dalla saliva sarà gratuita per i proprietari per un anno. L’assessore all’Igiene di Carmagnola conclude dicendo “Il problema della mancata raccolta delle deiezioni canine è molto sentito dai cittadini, in particolare nei parchi giochi per bambini e nelle vie del centro storico.  Abbiamo deciso di intervenire con una soluzione straordinaria, innovativa ed efficace, creando un metodo che potrà essere facilmente adottato da ogni comune italiano che ne senta l’esigenza”.

Posted in Abitudini, Animali, Campania, Foto, Italia, Italiano, La Gente, Napoli | Leave a comment

The Sidewalk Nuisance

Walking down city streets used to be an obstacle course. Instead of admiring the architecture or shop windows, you had to watch where you were walking or you would take home a little gift on the bottom of your shoe.  Urban laws have greatly improved the situation, but not all dog owners are dutiful about cleaning up during the morning walk.  Cities have tried everything from using the postal service (a Spanish mayor mailed the stuff back to dog owners) to shaming (some cities have publicized the names of offending owners) to bribery (some parks in Mexico City offered free WiFi in exchange for bags of waste).

Italian cities seem to be especially aggressive in the clean-up campaign and are using technology to help.  It started about 5 years ago in Naples, a city that ironically struggles to collect the garbage.  (Actually, the city drew on the success of the nearby resort island of Capri.)  The testing ground was Vomero, an affluent neighborhood, where every dog was required to have a blood test for DNA profiling in order to create a database of dogs and owners.  Then when an offending pile was discovered, it was tested. If a match was found, the owner faced a fine of up to 500 euros (about $685).  Early results indicated that the cleanup campaign was working.

Then in 2016 the city of Malnate (province of Varese, region of Lombardy) got in the act for the following year.  The city is known for its environmental sensitivity.  It started with a microchip in the trash; in one year, citizens who differentiated the trash increased from 55 to 77%.  The city of 16,000 inhabitants won an award for being among the 7 most virtuous municipalities in Italy.  Now dog owners are being challenged and their four-legged friends have to make a saliva contribution for potential DNA analysis.  These initiatives are not without critics.  The Anti-Vivisection League attacked the new experiment: “It is simply a ridiculous idea.  The technical and financial commitment that would be necessary is absolutely disproportionate to the supposed gravity of the problem.”  But the city pursued meetings with citizens and groups. They noted that the Vomero experiment led to the reduction of 70% of canine debris in the street, and that similar projects have started in Livorno and Trieste.  And the costs?  The campaign to collect the DNA will be paid by the company that takes care of garbage collection.  Dog owners will be required to take Fido to a veterinary clinic for a saliva contribution (free to the dog owner) that will be paid for by the company that performs environmental hygiene in the city.  That company, in turn, will see savings in work hours from the reduction of droppings in the street.  Moreover, owners will have useful information to define the pedigree or breed of origin, and to trace and prevent the onset of disease.

Then in 2017 in Savona (Liguria region), a new controversial initiative was proposed which requires dog owners, under penalty of a fine up to 500 euros, to clean up both solid and liquid waste in pedestrian areas, and on facades of buildings, columns of porticoes, poles, flowerbeds, benches, waste bins, etc.  The controversy is pitting tradespeople against animal rights advocates.  On the one hand, the shopkeepers maintain that for them it is a burdensome expense to do what the people should do by themselves.  Animal welfare organizations say that “preventing animals from taking care of their needs borders on maltreatment.”

And in 2018 the cities of Chivasso and Carmagnola (province of Turin in the Piedmont region) have passed laws regarding this issue.  In Chivasso, for those who have a dog, a scoop and a bag are not enough.  They must also carry a bottle of water to rinse away the pee-pee.  Penalties range from 25 to 150 euros.  Carmagnola instead provides DNA examination of all dogs in the municipality.  The Director of the Zoo Prophylactic Institute explains, “Our scientific contribution is to put genetic analysis of the service of the fight against animal diseases, in particular those that can be transmitted to humans, such as parasites, which are significantly increasing.”  The collection of dogs’ DNA from saliva will be free to owners for a year. The Council for Hygiene concludes by saying, “The problem of lack of collection of dog waste is felt by all citizens, especially in playgrounds for children and in the streets of the historic center.  We decided to intervene with an extraordinary, innovative and effective solution, creating a method that can easily be adopted by every Italian municipality.”

 

Posted in Abitudini, Animali, Campania, English, Foto, Liguria, Lombardia, Piemonte | Leave a comment