In I Promessi Sposi, Alessandro Manzoni calls her “Gertrude.” Her given name at birth was Marianna de Leyva but she assumed her mother’s name, Virginia Maria, when she became a nun. The story of her life — full of sex, scandal, power, money, and murder — was not only made into countless films and theatrical performances, but it also spawned a film subgenre called “Nunsploitation.” These films, which peaked in Europe in the 1970s, typically involve Christian nuns living in convents during the Middle Ages. The story generally involves either a religious or sexual conflict, such as religious oppression or sexual suppression due to living in celibacy.
Marianna de Leyva was born in Milan in 1575. Her father was the Earl of Monza and her mother was the daughter of a powerful Milanese banker. Her mother died of the plague when Marianna was only one year old. Although Marianna was destined to inherit a huge fortune, a series of intrigues managed to exclude her from her inheritance. Entrusted to an aunt, she entered the monastery of Santa Margherita in Monza in 1591 assuming the baptismal name of her mother, Virginia Maria. A contemporary writer described her as “modest,” “respectful,” and “obedient”; she made friends easily and enjoyed reading as much as possible. She became a teacher at the convent’s school for girls.
In 1597 sister Virginia Maria met count Giovanni Paolo Osio, who lived in a house next to the monastery. She began to exchange letters with Osio, delivered to his garden through a rope lowered from a window in the convent. The liaison progressed and was facilitated by the use of counterfeit keys provided by a blacksmith. Their meetings were organized with the complicity of other nuns and a priest, who was a close friend of Osio.
In 1602, Virginia Maria gave birth to a stillborn boy. A year later she gave birth to a girl who subsequently lived with her father. Within a few years one of the nuns at the convent threatened to expose the relationship. Osio killed her, apparently with the complicity of Sister Virginia and other nuns. Virginia Maria threatened all the complicit nuns that they would suffer the same fate if they revealed the crime. Osio also killed the blacksmith who had made the keys.
However, rumors about the convent became more frequent and came to the attention of the governor of Milan. In 1607 Osio was arrested. He subsequently escaped from prison and was later given a death sentence in absentia. He was eventually murdered by an alleged friend. When the archbishop learned of the scandal, he ordered a canonical trial of Sister Virginia. She defended herself by claiming loss of free will, asserting that diabolic forces had caused irresistible impulses in her. Torture was used on her and the priest who had facilitated the liaison. Sister Virginia was sentenced to be walled-in for 13 years in the Home of Santa Valeria. She lived there until her death in 1650.
In his novel, Manzoni (1785-1873) gives a long and detailed psychological analysis of the figure of Gertrude as a victim of injustices and tyranny. The story is told in flashbacks, which suggests an anguished secret in the nun’s life. Manzoni also describes the sordid crimes of her lover Egidio (Osio), depicting the ruthlessness and vanity of the aristocratic world. In the novel, Egidio pushes Gertrude to become an accomplice in the murder of a nun; this is her tormenting secret. Manzoni’s view of Gertrude is as a weak tool of evil, unable to resist threats and temptations, but basically not cruel. In the finale of I Promessi Sposi, Manzoni tells of the penance of Gertrude and her atonement.
Nell terremoto di Amatrice, nell’agosto 2016, hanno perso la vita quasi 300 persone e molti edifici sono andati distrutti. Per molte persone nella zona gli edifici in Piazza Sagnotti si sono dimostrati un punto interrogativo: perché alcuni sono rimasti indenni dalle scosse, senza nemmeno una crepa, mentre altri completamente crollati? Si è scoperto che gli edifici rimasti intatti sono privati, mentre quelli crollati erano pubblici. Un ingegnere, che è anche un consulente della Procura, ha recentemente ricostruito le cause del crollo di due palazzine pubbliche. “La prima volta che visitai i crolli, mi resi conto che si era verificato l’effetto “pancake”, cioè un cedimento a strati dei diversi piani dell’edificio”. Crede che i costruttori abbiano cercato di risparmiare denaro sul cemento e sulle staffe, sui rinforzi e sullo spessore dei pilastri. Hanno usato cemento scadente. E lui crede che ci sia stata conformità con i piani di costruzione—ma gli ispettori hanno fatto un lavoro scarso o hanno chiuso un occhio su qualche aspetto.
Triste. Non etico. Ora criminale. È anche ironico che un cemento di scarsa qualità sia venuto dalla terra che ha visto nascere il miglior cemento del mondo. È stato a lungo un mistero il motivo per cui il cemento romano usato per il Colosseo, il Pantheon e i Mercati di Traiano – con poca o nessuna manutenzione – sia durato per più di 2.000 anni, mentre il calcestruzzo moderno mostra segni di degrado appena dopo 50 anni. Secondo un ricercatore dell’Università della California, a Berkeley, “il cemento romano è uno dei materiali da costruzione più durevoli del pianeta”. Ciò che è ancora più sbalorditivo è che è sopravvissuto anche all’acqua salata. Oltre al suo uso in monumenti e 
strutture, era usato anche per costruire porti, moli, frangiflutti e altre strutture portuali. La spedizione marittima erano linfa vitale per la stabilità politica, economica e militare dell’impero romano, quindi costruire dei porti che sarebbero durati nel tempo era di fondamentale importanza.
Perché l’uso del cemento romano è scomparso? Quando l’impero romano tramontò e le spedizioni marittime pure, la necessità di calcestruzzo diminuì di conseguenza. Inoltre, le strutture originali erano così ben costruite da non dover essere sostituite. Perché il cemento romano oggi non viene usato sia in Italia, che negli Stati Uniti? Per un paio di motivi: non è ottimale per quelle costruzioni che necessitano di un indurimento più rapido. Inoltre, mentre la “ricetta” del passato è conosciuta, le dosi esatte non lo sono. Ma i ricercatori non rinunciano alla ricerca di un cemento moderno più ecologico e duraturo. Si stanno provando diverse soluzioni che fanno uso di cenere. La cenere volante (fly ash) è un prodotto industriale derivante dalla combustione del carbone che viene comunemente utilizzato per produrre calcestruzzo moderno e verde, ma non ci sono forniture sufficienti in tutto il mondo. Un’altra soluzione sarebbe fare ciò che facevano i Romani: trovare scorte adeguate e usare la cenere vulcanica.
Sad. Unethical. Now criminal. It is also ironic that such poor-quality concrete came from the land that gave birth to the best cement and concrete ever invented. It has long been a mystery why Roman concrete structures like the Colosseum, the Pantheon, and Trajan’s markets—with little or no maintenance– have survived more than 2,000 years while modern concrete shows signs of degradation within 50 years. According to one University of California Berkeley researcher, “Roman concrete is one of the most durable construction materials on the planet.” What is even more astounding is its survival in the unforgiving saltwater environment. Besides its use in monuments and 
Why did the use of Roman concrete decrease? As the Roman Empire declined and shipping declined, the need for seawater concrete declined. In addition, the original structures were built so well that they didn’t need to be replaced. Why isn’t Roman concrete used today in both Italy and the United States? There are a couple of reasons: It is not ideal for construction where faster hardening is needed. In addition, while the “recipe” of the past is known, the exact doses are not. But researchers are not giving up in their search for a more earth-friendly and durable modern concrete. One avenue of investigation is finding enough fly ash or an acceptable alternative. Fly ash is an industrial waste product from the burning of coal that is commonly used to produce modern, green concrete, but there are not sufficient supplies worldwide. Another research avenue is to do as the Romans did: Find and use volcanic ash.
